what are the three possible strategies for creating musical form?
Contents
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
Background
The Grammar-Translation Method was prevalent in foreign language classrooms from the mid 19th century to the mid 20th century. It was first introduced in Latin and ancient Greek classrooms in the early 19thcentury, replacing more communicatively-oriented methods as Latin ceased to be a spoken language. As there was no longer a strong justification for teaching oral skills in the classical languages, the Grammar-Translation Method espoused the goal of developing the ability to read and translate classical texts. By the mid 19th century the method had been adopted for teaching modern languages by German scholars such as Karl Plötz and Johann Seidenstücker, and it quickly spread to classrooms throughout Europe and the United States. Throughout its history, the Grammar-Translation Method was criticized by advocates of more "direct" methods, who claimed that languages ought to be learned by actually speaking and listening to them rather than merely studying about them. One critic went so far as to claim that the Grammar-Translation Method sought to "know everything about something rather than the thing itself"(Rouse, 1925; quoted in Kelly, 1969, p. 53). However, the Grammar-Translation Method continued to be one of the primary methods used in U.S. classrooms, although it was partially supplanted in the 1930s by the so-called "Reading Method," which replaced the classical texts of the Grammar-Translation method with texts written specifically for foreign language students based on word frequency studies, and encouraged students to avoid consciously translating what they were reading. 
FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS
the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows: 1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. 2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. 3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. 4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. 5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. 6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. 7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. 8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
ADVANTAGES
1) The target language is quickly explained in GTM. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. 2) Teacher and students are easy to communicate/It does not need native language Teacher's labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. 3) The students easy to understand because of grammatical lessons. ESL students taught successfully under the grammar translation method will have the ability to translate even difficult texts from their native language into English. 
DISADVANTAGES
1) No Scope for Effective Communication and Very Tedious for Learners Direct translation is widely regarded as an inefficient way of becoming fluent in any language. 2) Ineffective Method I n the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. 3) More Importance on Grammar Rules than on Meaning Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. 4) Slow Learning Rate and Making Learners Think in L1 It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. 
TEACHER'S ROLE
Teachers are just guides because grammar Translation deals with the memorization of rules, manipulation of the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers because test of grammar rules and translation are easy to construct and be objectively scored. The facilitator main function is that of observation rather than corrective intervention in regards to the learners.
STUDENTS' ROLE
Students are expected to memorize endless lists of grammar rules and vocabulary, and produce almost perfect translations. This method means a tedious experience and often creates frustration for students. Main activities and controls are stated by the students, he or she is the one who provides the course of the learning process and the status of knowledge as well. Collaborative work is of s great importance, a real cooperative behavior from the learner, is required for the lessons. 
TECHNIQUES
1. Use words in sentences In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words. 2. Composition The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis of the reading passage. Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. The questions are sequenced so that the first group of questions asks for information contained within the reading passage. 
THE DIRECT METHOD
BACKGROUND
Gouin had been one of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build a methodology around observation of child language learning. Other reformers toward the end of the century likewise turned their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning, and for this reason they are sometimes referred to as advocates of a "natural" method. In fact at various times throughout the history of language teaching, attempts have been made to make second language learning more like first language learning.
In the sixteenth century, for example, Montaigne described how he was entrusted to a guardian who addressed him exclusively in Latin for the first years of his life, since Montaigne's father wanted his son to speak Latin well. Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in the nineteenth century was L. Sauveur (1826-1907), who used intensive oral interaction in the target language, employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language. He opened a language school in Boston in the late 1860s, and his method soon became referred to as the Natural Method. Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the learner's native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action. The German scholar F. Franke wrote on the psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target language (1884) and provided a theoretical justification for a monolingual approach to teaching. 
According to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. Learners would then be able to induce rules of grammar. The teacher replaced the textbook in the early stages of learning. Speaking began with systematic attention to pronunciation. Known words could be used to teach new vocabulary, using mime, demonstration, and pictures.
FEATURES OF THE METHOD
1. Teaching vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
2. Teaching grammar by using an
inductive approach (i.e. Having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
3. Centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation). 4. Focus on question-answer patterns. 6. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language. 7. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are introduced in intermediate phase. 8. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes. 9. Grammar is taught inductively. 10. New teaching points are introduced orally. 11. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
ADVANTAGES
(1) It makes the learning of English interesting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning. (2) It is an activity method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils. (3) According to Macnee, "It is the quickest way of getting started". In a few months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in sentences. This serves as a strong foundation of further learning. (4) Due to application of the Direct Method, students are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then express their own
ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt. (5) Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract. (6) This method can be usefully employed from the lowest to the highest class. (7) Through this method, fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly developed.
DISADVANTAGES
(1) There are many abstract words which cannot be interpreted directly in English and much time and energy are wasted in making attempts for the purpose. (2) This method is based on the principles that auditory appeal is stronger that visual. But there are children who learn more with visual than with their oral- aural sense like ears and tongue. (3) The method ignores systematic written work and reading activities and sufficient attention is not paid to reading and writing.
(4) Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is experienced in providing readers of such kind. (5) There is dearth of teachers trained and interested in teaching English in this method. (6) This method may not hold well in higher classes where the Translation Method is found suitable. (7) In larger classes, this method is not properly applied and teaching in this method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes.
THE TEACHERS' ROLE
2. The teachers provide information of the target language including the culture consisting of the history of the people who speak the target language. 3. Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. 4. The teacher can be the monitor of the students. He watches the students' progress in using the target language. 5. The teacher has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative answer supplied. 6. The teacher is also the initiator. He finds various techniques to get the students to self-correct whenever possible. 8. The teacher uses map drawing as a technique to give listening comprehension.
1. The teacher is the source for the students to know the words in target language. 
THE STUDENTS' ROLE
2. The students' role in direct method is the active learner. 3. They are active in exploring new words, expression, etc. in target language. 4. The students are also the observer and practitioner. 5. The students observe the target language used by the teacher in teaching and they try to get the meaning based on the demonstration given.
1. Teacher/student interaction became fuller, guessing of context or content, completing fill-ins, and doing "cloze" exercises were the order of the day.
TECHNIQUES
v Reading aloud
v Question answer exercise
v Fill-in-the-blank exercise
THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Background
CHARACTERISTICS
ADVANTAGES
1. This is the first language learning method which is grounded on a solid theory of language learning. 2. This method emphasises everyday cultural traits of the target language. 3. It provides the opportunity to learn correct pronunciation and structure. 4. This method made it possible to teach large groups of learners. 5. It puts stress on listening and speaking skills. DISADVANTAGES
1. The theoretical foundation of the Audio-lingual Method suffers from inadequacy. 2. It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, memorization or over-learning. 3. It is a teacher dominated method. 4. Here, the learners have a passive role, since they have little control over their learning. 5. This method does not put equal emphasis on the four basic skills, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. 6. It considers only language form, not meaning. 7. This method does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence. 8. It prefers accuracy to fluency.
In the Audio-lingual Method the teacher has an active role as he is the sole authority to control and direct the whole learning programme. He monitors and corrects the students' performance. He is also responsible for providing the students with a good model for imitation. The teacher endeavours to keep the students attentive by varying drills In Audio-lingual Method the materials are predominantly teacher-oriented. The instructional materials basically contains the structured sequence of lessons to be followed, the dialogues, drills, and other practice activities, which would hopefully enable the teacher to develop language mastery in the student.
LEARNER ROLES
In the Audio-lingual method the students play a passive role as they don't have any control over the content or the method of learning. The students are mere imitators of the teacher's model. Their sole objective is to follow the teacher's direction and respond as precisely and as promptly as possible.
TEACHER ROLES
THE ROLE OF TEACHING/ LEARNING MATERIALS
Transposition Drill: This drill enables the students to be able to change the word order in a sentence when a new word is added. For example: TECHNIQUES
Teacher: I'm not going to come with you.
Student: Neither am I.
Teacher: This is my car (affirmative).
Student: This is not my car (negative).
Teacher: I ____ never seen such a ____ scenery before.
Students: I have never seen such a beautiful scenery before.
PRESENTATION PRACTICE PRODUCTION (PPP)
WHAT IS THE PPP METHOD?
The PPP method could be characterized as a common-sense approach to teaching as it consists of 3 stages that most people who have learnt how to do anything will be familiar with.
STAGES
The second stage is Making a smooth transition from Presentation to Practice usually involves moving the students from the Individual Drill stage into Pair Work (chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work). Communicative practice then leads the way toward Production.
The first stage is the presentation of an aspect of language in a context that students are familiar with, much the same way that a swimming instructor would demonstrate a stroke outside the pool to beginners. 
The final stage is production where the students will use the language in context, in an activity set up by the teacher who will be giving minimal assistance, like the swimming instructor allowing his young charges to take their first few tentative strokes on their own.
Some good examples of effective Production activities include situational role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-solving, narratives, descriptions, quizzes and games.
TECHNIQUES
Role-play: in this activity the teacher can give the students a situation they will have to performe in front of the class. Obviously, the role-play has to be related with the topic they are studying.
By doing this activity the students can practice new vocabulary so that they can internalize them and use them when they speak.
Debates: the teacher can also organize some debates in the classroom to make the class interesting. The topics of the debate can be 
Descriptions: the teacher can ask the students to work in pairs and write a description about their favorite place to be. After that the students can share their descriptions with the whole class. In this activity students are going to put into practice their writing skills and the vocabulary they have studied.
THE SEQUENCE OF A PPP LESSON
1. The teacher 2. The students practise this new vocabulary through controlled activities such as worksheets or question and answer activities to 3. The students use or
This EFL teaching method of presentation, practice and production is an approach that follows a definite sequence:
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)
Background
CHARACTERISTIC OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
1. Students typically have a conversation using their native language. 2. The teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation. 3. These words are recorded, and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid conversation. 4. Later, a transcript is made of the conversation, and native language equivalents are written beneath the target language words. 5. The transcription of the conversation becomes a 'text' with which students work. 6. Various activities are conducted (for example, examination of a grammar point, working on pronunciation of a particular phrase, or creating new sentences with words from the transcript) that allow students to further explore the language they have generated. 7. During the course of the lesson, students are invited to say how they feel, and in return the teacher understands them.
LEARNER'S ROLES
In Community Language Learning, learners become members of a community - their fellow learners and the teacher - and learn through interacting with members of the community. Learning is not viewed as an individual accomplishment but as something that is achieved collaboratively. 
ADVANTAGES
The threat of the all-knowing teacher, of making blunders inthe foreign language in front of classmates, of competing against peers--all threats which can lead to afeeling of alienation and inadequacy are presumably removed. The counselor allows the learner todetermine the type of conversation and to analyze the foreign language inductively. It is interesting to notethat the teacher can also become a client at times: in situations in which explanation or translation seems tobe impossible, it is often the client-learner who steps in and becomes a counselor to aid the teacher. Thestudent-centered nature of the method can provide extrinsic motivation and capitalize on intrinsicmotivation.
DISADVANTAGES
The counselor-teacher can become too non-directive. The student often needs direction, especially in the first stage, in which there is suchseemingly endless struggle within the foreign language. Supportive but assertive direction from thecounselor could strengthen the method.
TEACHER'S ROLES
In the early stages of learning the teacher operates in a supportive role, providing target language translations and a model for imitation on request of the clients. Later, interaction may be initiated by the students, and the teacher monitors learner utterances, providing assistance when requested. As learning progresses, students become increasingly capable of accepting criticism, and the teacher may intervene directly to correct deviant utterances, supply idioms, and advise on usage and fine points of grammar. The teacher's role is initially likened to that of a nurturing parent. The student gradually "grows"' In ability, and the nature of the relationship changes so that the teacher's position becomes somewhat dependent upon the learner. The knower derives a sense of self-worth through requests for the knower's assistance.
TECHNIQUES
Listening. Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might have elicited or overheard in class interactions. Free conversation. Students engage in ´free conversation with' the teacher or with other learners. This might include discussion of what they learned as well as feelings they had about how they learned. Group Work. Learners may engage in various group tasks, such as small-group discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)
BACKGROUND
CHARACTERISTICS
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
TEACHER ROLES
The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the 
LEARNER ROLES
TECHNIQUES
SUGGESTOPEDIA
BACKGROUND
Georgi Lozanov of Bulgaria developed the "Suggestopedia" method from a personal belief that most people fill only a fraction of their brains' capacity during a lifetime of learning. He believed that adults set up affective obstacles to learning by being afraid to try new experiences or by being preoccupied or nervous. Thus, to be able to learn large amounts of information in short periods of time, all of the barriers to learning must be lowered, or "desuggested." Suggestopedia includes such ways to reduce anxiety as breathing exercises and playing classical music while the lesson is in In this way, Suggestopedia parallels many innovative learning methods in other fields that encourage development of the "whole person" or more use of the functions located at right side of the brain. Other aspects of the language instruction in Suggestopedia - explanation of grammar, descriptions, etc.-resemble more traditional methods. The unique contribution of Suggestopedia is in its appealing presentation of material. Lozanov's techniques have been applied to the study of many subjects and are an important part of the "Integrative Learning" study centers in the United States. His Institute of Suggestology in Sofia has many international visitors.
CHARACTERISTICS
Classroom arrangement should make students feel comfortable and relaxed. Suggestopedia is not designed for school lessons as its effectiveness depends also on the way language is dealt with in classroom context. The course involves a small number of students, comfortable seats, etc.
Baroque largo movements normally have the same number of beats in a minute as the heart of a person in a state of relaxation. By introducing this music, the student's pulse can be reduced. Note that there are different tempos in Baroque works.
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
TEACHER'S ROLE
- The teacher in a Suggestopedia course is responsible for elimination and avoidance of all factors that might prevent learning and the inclusion of all factors which promote learning in the interactive teaching and learning environment both on the conscious and unconscious levels of communication.
- Suggestopedic teachers practice pedagogy based on the use of positive suggestions.
LEARNER'S ROLE
Learners must not try to figure out, manipulate, or study the material presented but must maintain a pseudo-passive state.
TECHNIQUES
THE SILENT WAY
BACKGROUND
The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. Gattegno's name is well known for his revival of interest in the use of coloured wooden sticks called cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Colour, an approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colours. His materials are copyrighted and marketed through an organization he operates called Educational Solutions Inc., in New York. The Silent Way represents Gattegno's venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of colour charts and the coloured cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gattegno's previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. (Cuisenaire rods were first developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of math. Gattegno had observed Cuisenaire and this gave him the idea for their use in language teaching.)
CHARACTERISTICS
1. 
ADVANTAGES
-- The use of the Silent Way enables a very high degree of interaction as well between the teacher and the students as between the students themselves and additionally raises the participation of the students in class. – The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning. – It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual's extraordinary cognitive powers.
DISADVANTAGES
The Silent Way is a very abstract way of learning a language, the learners have to engage themselves with the artificiality of the approach, which is extremely different from more commonly used methods of language learning. – This method can be benefited by the teacher only in small groups of students. The teacher can gain ability in this method by trying. The teacher is expected to enrich the materials on his/her own. 
LEARNER'S ROLE
TEACHER ROLES
TECHNIQUES
Word chart • 1. There are twelve English charts containing about 500 words. The charts contain the functional vocabulary of English. • 2. The teacher points to words in word chart in a sequence to let students to read aloud the sentences. The way the letters are colored helps students with their pronunciation. Fidel chart 1. There are eight Fidel charts for learning English. 2. The teacher, and later the students, point to the color-coded Fidel charts in order that students associate the sounds of the language with their spelling. Fods • Rods can be used to provide visible actions or situations for any language structure, to introduce it, or to enable students to practice using it. • Rods are used to teach colors, numbers, and statements with prepositions and conditionals. • Rods can be used abstractly as well. • The teacher can use rods to represent each word in a sentence or to elicit the sentence from the students.
THE NATURAL APPROACH
BACKGROUND
Adults have the LAD. Adults also acquire language by following the principles of Universal Grammar.¢ The different between adult and children acquisition skill is that adults have two things to follow when they learn foreign language: Acquisition and learning. But, children only acquire the languages. In the book, Mr. Krashen and Mrs. Terrell consider their approach as a traditional method. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis – The most basic steps of all in the Krashen's theory. — It's the most well known among linguists and language practitioners. — The learner has two ways of learning the second language, which are the acquired system and the learned system.¢ The monitor hypothesis is When the learner can check and correct language output. People acquire language by using grammatical structures in a predictable order.¢ The input hypothesis : The acquisition of languages are in a predictable order. Everybody have the same steps of learning acquisition. The Affective Filter hypothesis :When the learner's emotional state can act as a filter that can prevent input from reaching the learner's language acquisition device. Filter is up the Negative emotional factors and they won't acquire language. Filter is down the Learner will learn better.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. The goal of the approach is aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills – "conversations, shopping, listening to the radio," etc. 2. Learners move through three stages: 1) the preproduction stage is the development of listening comprehension skills, 2) the early production stage, marked with errors, 3) the last stage extends the production into longer stretches of discourse. 3. The teacher needs to focus on meaning, not on form. 4. The teacher does not correct errors. 5. The most noteworthy characteristic is its advocacy of a "silent period," where preproduction can begin. 6. The silent period encourages the delay oforal production until speech "emerges." 7. The Natural Approach encourages theteacher not to insist that learners speak rightaway. 8. The Natural Approach blends well withthings like TPR, which builds the learner'slanguage "ego," and does not force them intorisk-taking situations which could embarrassthem.
ADVANTAGES
1. The classroom consisting of acquisition activities can be an excellent environment for beginners. The Natural Approach is an attempt to simulate in the classroom an environment that will be similar to the context in which children acquire their first language. 2. Comprehensible and meaningful practice activities are emphasized. In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of right kinds of comprehensible input 3. The teacher creates speeches which enable students to interact using the target language. 4. Students are not forced to respond in the target language immediately. ⑸Students interact in meaningful situation at their own level. 5. The teacher knows students' needs and concentrates on appropriate and useful areas.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The Natural Approach ignores many factors essential in second language course design. 2. It simply borrows techniques from other methods. 3. There is nothing novel about its procedures and techniques.
4. There are still many problems in the research method.
TEACHER'S ROLE
LEARNER'S ROLE
TECHNIQUES
2. Problem-solving activities are those in which the students' attention is focused on finding a correct answer to a question, a problem or a situation. 3. Games are the third group of activities.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)
BACKGROUND
Communicative language teaching rose to prominence in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of many disparate developments in both Europe and the United States. First, there was an increased demand for language learning, particularly in Europe. The advent of the European Common Market led to widespread European migration, and consequently there was a large population of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or for personal reasons. At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign languages in school. The number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools The development of communicative language teaching was also helped by new academic ideas. In Britain, applied linguists began to In the United States, the linguist and anthropologist
CHARACTERISTICS
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is felt that there is not enough emphasis on the correction of pronunciation and grammar error. It is because too much focus on meaning at the expense of form. 2. CLT approach focuses on fluency but not accuracy in grammar and pronunciation. 3. The CLT approach is great for intermediate student and advanced students, but for Beginners some controlled practice is needed. 4. The monitoring ability of the teacher must be very good 5. Grammar Teaching Practices make application of this approach difficult.
ADVANTAGES
TEACHER'S ROLE
The teacher has to assume the role of a facilitator or monitor, rather then simply being the model for correct speech and the one with the primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences. The teacher has to develop a different view of students errors and his/her own role in facilitating language learning.
LEARNER'S ROLE
In the CLT, learners have to participate in classroom activities that are based on a cooperative rather than in a individualistic approach to learning. Students have to become comfortable with listening to their peers in pair or group work tasks, rather than relying on the teachers for a model.
TECHNIQUES
- Community oriented task: the teacher plan activities in which all the students can participate.
what are the three possible strategies for creating musical form?
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